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ReferencesBabcock RC, Milton DA, Pratchett MS (2016) Relationships between size and reproductive output in the crown-of-thorns starfish. Mar Biol 163:1–7Article Google Scholar Babcock R, Plagányi É, Morello EB, Rochester W (2014) What are the important thresholds and relationships to inform the management of COTS? Report for GBRMPA, 30 June 2014. CSIRO, Australia, p 70 Google Scholar Birkeland C (1982) Terrestrial runoff as a cause of outbreaks of Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata: Asteroidea). Mar Biol 69:175–185Article Google Scholar Birkeland C (1989) The Faustian traits of the crown-of-thorns starfish. Am Sci 77:154–163 Google Scholar Birkeland C, Lucas JS (1990) Acanthaster planci: major management problem of coral reefs. CRC Press, Boca Raton Google Scholar Boström-Einarsson L, Rivera-Posada J (2016) Controlling outbreaks of the coral-eating crown-of-thorns starfish using a single injection of common household vinegar. Coral Reefs 35:223–228Article Google Scholar Claar DC, Szostek L, McDevitt-Irwin JM, Schanze JJ, Baum JK (2018) Global patterns and impacts of El Nino events on coral reefs: A meta-analysis. Plos One 13:22Article Google Scholar Condie S, Plagányi E, Morello E, Hock K, Beeden R. (2018) Great Barrier Reef recovery through multiple interventions. Conserv Biol 32De’ath G, Moran PJ (1998) Factors affecting the behaviour of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci L.) on the Great Barrier Reef: 2: Feeding preferences. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 220:107–126Article Google Scholar De’ath G, Fabricius KE, Sweatman H, Puotinen M (2012) The 27–year decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes. Proc Nat Acad Sci 109:17995–17999Article Google Scholar Endean R (1969) Report on investigations made into aspects of the current Acanthaster planci (crown-of-thorns) infestations of certain reefs of the Great Barrier Reef. Fisheries Branch, Australia Google Scholar Fabricius KE, Okaji K, De’ath G (2010) Three lines of evidence to link outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns seastar Acanthaster planci to the release of larval food limitation. Coral Reefs 29:593–605Article Google Scholar Fernandes L (1990) Effect of the distribution and density of benthic target organisms on manta tow estimates of their abundance. Coral Reefs 9(3):161–165Article Google Scholar Fernandes L, Marsh H, Moran P, Sinclair D (1990) Bias in manta tow surveys of Acanthaster planci. Coral Reefs 9:155–160Article Google Scholar Fisk DA, Power MC (1999) Development of cost-effective control strategies for Crown-of-Thorns Starfish. CRC Reef Research Centre, Townsville Google Scholar Fletcher, C.S., Bonin, M.C., and Westcott, D.A. 2020. An ecologically-based operational strategy for COTS Control: Integrated decision making from the site to the regional scale. Reef and Rainforest Research Centre Limited, Cairns.65 pp. DA, Skaug HJ, Ancheta J, Ianelli JN, Magnusson A, Maunder MN, Nielsen A, Sibert J (2012) AD Model Builder: using automatic differentiation for statistical inference of highly parameterized complex nonlinear models. Optim Methods Softw 27:233–249Article Google Scholar GBRMPA (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority)

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF PLEASE USE OUR A-Z INDEX TO NAVIGATE THIS SITE LARGEST REEF IN THE WORLD - The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 sq mi). The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia. The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms. This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral polyps. It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. The Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef in the world. It is home to at least 400 individual species of coral and thousands of different species of fish, mollusks, sea snakes, sea turtles, whales, dolphins, birds and more. As with the other coral reefs of the world, this incredible ecological hotspot is under threat. A heat wave in 2016 caused a large percentage of the corals in the Great Barrier Reef to undergo severe bleaching and death. A 2018 study in the journal Nature Communications found that in just the northern third of the reef, over 60 percent of the shallow-water corals (those below 49 feet, or 15 meters) experienced some degree of bleaching, and 30 percent of the coral died. The study also found that even in the deeper, less-explored areas of the reef (down to about 131 feet or 40 m), nearly 40 percent of the corals had at least partial bleaching. Healthy reefs lead to healthy oceans, and healthy oceans are vital to all life on Earth. The destruction facing not only the Great Barrier Reef, but also every reef around the world, can lead to the extinction of thousands of species of marine life. In turn, coastlines currently protected by reefs would more readily flood during storms, some islands and low-lying countries would vanish under the water, and the $30 billion industry that coral reefs provide could collapse. The Australian government has put forth a long-term plan to sustain the Great Barrier Reef. The plan outlines efforts to greatly reduce and eventually eliminate dumping materials and chemicals, reduce fishing and poaching, and monitor the water quality of run-off directed toward reef. There are also many attempts to rebuild the reef. Scientists are working to breed stronger species of coral that are less susceptible to the warmer waters and grow at an accelerated rate, reported the New York Times. They grow various coral species in the lab and place them in experimental environments designed to reflect the predicted temperature and acidity of the ocean decades from now. Another group of coral reef ecologists are experimenting with growing corals on steel frames placed over the damaged parts of a reef. Electrical currents sent through the steel frames, accelerates the corals'

And reduce Crown-of-Thorns Starfish outbreaks. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 512:167–183Article Google Scholar Plagányi É, Ellis N, Blamey LK, Morello E, Norman-Lopez A, Robinson W, Sporcic M, Sweatman H (2014a) Ecosystem modelling provides clues to understanding ecological tipping points. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 512:99–113Article Google Scholar Plagányi É, Punt A, Hillary R, Morello E, Thebaud O, Hutton T, Pillans R, Thorson J, Fulton EA, Smith ADT, Smith F, Bayliss P, Haywood M, Lyne V, Rothlisberg P (2014b) Multi-species fisheries management and conservation: tactical applications using models of intermediate complexity. Fish Fisheries 15:1–22Article Google Scholar Pratchett M (2005) Dynamics of an outbreak population of Acanthaster planci at Lizard Island, northern Great Barrier Reef (1995–1999). Coral Reefs 24:453–462Article Google Scholar Pratchett M (2010) Changes in coral assemblages during an outbreak of Acanthaster planci at Lizard Island, northern Great Barrier Reef (1995–1999). Coral Reefs 29:717–725Article Google Scholar Pratchett MS, Caballes CF, Rivera-Posada JA, Sweatman HPA (2014) Limits to understanding and managing outbreaks of Crown-of-Thorns Starfish (Acanthaster spp). Oceanogr Mar Biol 52:133–200Article Google Scholar Pratchett MS, Caballes CF, Wilmes JC, Matthews S, Mellin C, Sweatman HPA, Nadler LE, Brodie J, Thompson CA, Hoey J, Bos AR, Byrne M, Messmer V, Fortunato SAV, Chen CCM, Buck ACE, Babcock RC, Uthicke S (2017) Thirty Years of Research on Crown-of-Thorns Starfish (1986–2016): Scientific Advances and Emerging Opportunities. Diversity 9:41Article Google Scholar Rivera-Posada J, Pratchett MS, Aguilar C, Grand A, Caballes CF (2014) Bile salts and the single-shot lethal injection method for killing crown-of-thorns sea stars (Acanthaster planci). Ocean Coast Manag 102:383–390Article Google Scholar Rogers J, Babcock R, Plagányi É (2017) Aggregation, Allee effects and critical thresholds for the management of the crown of thorns starfish Acanthaster planci. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 578:99–114Article Google Scholar Saponari L, Montalbetti E, Galli P, Strona G, Seveso D, Dehnert I, Montano S (2018) Monitoring and assessing a 2-year outbreak of the corallivorous seastar Acanthaster planci in Ari Atoll. Republic of Maldives. Environ Monit Assess 190:344Article Google Scholar Sweatman H (2008) No-take reserves protect coral reefs from predatory starfish. Current Biology 18:R598–R599Article CAS Google Scholar Sweatman H, Cheal AJ, Coleman G, Emslie M, Johns K, Jonker M, Miller I, Osborne K et al (2008) Long-term Monitoring of the Great Barrier Reef. Australian Institute of marine Sciences, Townsville Google Scholar Townsend H, Harvey CJ, deReynier Y, Davis D, Zador S, Gaichas S, Weijerman M, Hazen EL, Kaplan IC (2019) Progress on Implementing Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management in the US Through the Use of Ecosystem Models and Analysis. Front Mar Sci 6:641Article Google Scholar Uthicke S, Lamare M, Doyle JR (2018) eDNA detection of corallivorous seastar (Acanthaster cf. solaris) outbreaks on the Great Barrier Reef using digital droplet PCR. Coral Reefs 37:1229–1239Article Google Scholar Vanhatalo J,

Growth by three to four times, reported New Scientist. It's possible this technique could help rebuild the reef and make the coral more likely to survive bleaching events. ... ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF REEFS English naturalist Charles Darwin concluded in 1842 that barrier reefs began as reefs fringing the land around which they now form a barrier and that oceanic atoll reefs began as reefs fringing a volcanic island. Subsidence of the land fringed was thought to allow the reef to grow upward (and outward over its own fore-reef debris). Maximum growth would occur at the seaward edge, and lagoons would develop between the ascending barrier, or atoll, reef and the land or volcanic cone. When the volcanic cone became completely submerged, the atoll lagoon would contain only coral islands. Fundamentally, Darwin’s concept is still valid, although many consider submergence by the rise of sea level, following melting of ice sheets that appeared during the Pleistocene Epoch (2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago), to be a better explanation of the latest upward growth of many reefs, particularly on continental shelves. Mid-ocean stages of coral reef development are explained by plate-tectonic theory, according to which the ocean floor subsides as it spreads outward from oceanic ridges. The Hawaiian Islands, with barrier reefs in the southeast grading to atolls in the northwest, is a good example of this. ..... .... CONTACTS ..... BIODIVERSITY COP HISTORY COP 1: 1994 Nassau, Bahamas, Nov & Dec COP 8: 2006 Curitiba, Brazil, 8 Mar COP 2: 1995 Jakarta, Indonesia, Nov COP 9: 2008 Bonn, Germany, May COP 3: 1996 Buenos Aires, Argentina, Nov COP 10: 2010 Nagoya, Japan, Oct COP 4: 1998 Bratislava, Slovakia, May COP 11: 2012 Hyderabad, India EXCOP: 1999 Cartagena, Colombia, Feb COP 12: 2014 Pyeongchang, Republic of Korea, Oct COP 5: 2000 Nairobi, Kenya, May COP 13: 2016 Cancun, Mexico, 2 to 17 Dec COP 6: 2002 The Hague, Netherlands, April COP 14: 2018 Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt, 17 to 29 Nov COP 7: 2004 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Feb COP 15: 2020 Kunming, Yunnan, China CLIMATE CHANGE UN COP HISTORY 1995 COP 1, BERLIN, GERMANY 1996 COP 2, GENEVA, SWITZERLAND 1997 COP 3, KYOTO, JAPAN 1998 COP 4, BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA 1999 COP 5, BONN, GERMANY 2000:COP 6, THE HAGUE, NETHERLANDS 2001 COP 7, MARRAKECH, MOROCCO 2002 COP 8, NEW DELHI, INDIA 2003 COP 9, MILAN, ITALY 2004 COP 10, BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA 2005 COP 11/CMP 1, MONTREAL, CANADA 2006 COP 12/CMP 2, NAIROBI, KENYA 2007 COP 13/CMP 3, BALI, INDONESIA 2008 COP 14/CMP 4, POZNAN, POLAND 2009 COP 15/CMP 5, COPENHAGEN, DENMARK 2010 COP 16/CMP 6, CANCUN, MEXICO 2011 COP 17/CMP 7, DURBAN, SOUTH AFRICA 2012 COP 18/CMP 8, DOHA, QATAR 2013 COP 19/CMP 9, WARSAW, POLAND 2014 COP 20/CMP 10, LIMA, PERU 2015 COP 21/CMP 11, Paris, France 2016 COP 22/CMP 12/CMA 1, Marrakech, Morocco 2017 COP 23/CMP 13/CMA 2, Bonn, Germany 2018 COP 24/CMP 14/CMA 3, Katowice, Poland 2019 COP 25/CMP 15/CMA 4, Santiago, Chile 2020 COP 26/CMP 16/CMA 5, to

Called a kelp forest. When scientists stumbled upon a kelp forest in the Pacific Ocean in 2007, the discovery highlighted how much we still have to learn about the world's waters. Before this discovery, biologists thought kelp could not grow in warm tropical waters. Soft Coral Giordano Cipriani / Getty Images Feathery soft corals make up bouquets of brightly-colored sea life. Soft corals are members of the Octocorallia subclass, named for their "eightfold radial symmetry," which means they have eight smaller pieces that branch off of each main tube to give the downy appearance. Soft corals, having a significant variation in shape and size, can thrive in deep water or shallow tropical water. Open Brain Coral Jmk777 / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain It's clear how open brain coral got its name: The invertebrate—known scientifically as Trachyphyllia—exhibits a flabello-meandroid growth pattern in which curling valleys and fleshy walls are visible on its exterior. A type of stony coral, open brain coral are near threatened due to the reduction of coral reef habitat and harvesting for aquariums. This species of coral is small— less than eight inches—and both solitary and colonial. It may be found among other types of free-living coral. Soft coral thrives in the warm, shallow waters of the Indo-Pacific. Coral Reef Giordano Cipriani / Getty Images Not only will you find remarkable creatures in coral reefs; you'll also find that the reefs themselves are quite stunning. Coral varies in shape, size, and texture, but it is perhaps most admired for its variegation. The different colors of coral are a result of photosynthetic pigments, fluorescent proteins, and nonfluorescent chromoproteins. Coral's brilliant colors are severely threatened, however, by warming water temperatures. Rising temperatures result in a reduction in the amount of microscopic algae that produce the food corals need to survive, which can destroy coral or cause severe damage to its ecosystem. As of 2021, coral bleaching impacted some 75% of reefs globally. Even the largest coral reef system in the world, the Great Barrier Reef, is dying; pollution and overfishing are other severe threats to coral reefs. What Makes